ART IN JEWISH SOCIETY - [PDF Document] (2024)

ART

IN JEWISH SOCIETY

World Art Studies

Conferences and Studies

of the Polish Institute of World Art Studies

Vol. XV

Editorial Board

Agnieszka Kluczewska-Wójcik & Jerzy Malinowski

POLISH INSTITUTE OF WORLD ART STUDIES

Polish Institute of World Art Studies & Tako Publishing HouseWarsaw–Toruń 2016

ART IN JEWISH SOCIETY

Edited by

Jerzy Malinowski, Renata Piątkowska, Małgorzata Stolarska-Fronia, Tamara Sztyma

Publication financed by: The Ministry of Science and Higher Education (agreement no. 1045/P-DUN/2015)

ReviewersProf. dr hab. Anna Markowska

Prof. dr hab. Jan Wiktor Sienkiewicz

ProofreadingSteve Jones

Technical editorMarcin Teodorczyk

PhotosAuthors’ archives (unless otherwise stated)

On the cover: Henryk Glicenstein, Sleeping Messiah, 1905, bronze, The Jewish Historical Institute, Warsaw,

photo: The Jewish Historical Institute, Warsaw

© Copyright by Jerzy Malinowski, Renata Piątkowska, Małgorzata Stolarska-Fronia & Tamara Sztyma 2016

© Copyright by Polish Institute of World Art Studies in Warsaw 2016© Copyright by Tako Publishing House 2016

ISSN 2543-4624ISBN 978-83-62737-91-8

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Jerzy Malinowski Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

I. Artistic ideas in Jewish Society

Renata PiątkowskaAshared space. Jewish students atthe Warsaw Academy ofFine Arts (1923–1939) . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Aviv LivnatFar Undzere Kinstler (For Our Artists). Tea Arciszewska and the Jewish artists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Joanna MatyjasekFunctions oftraditional Jewish paper-cutting inthe past and their modern-day changes . . . . . . . . 37

Izabella PowalskaSamuel Hirszenberg and the Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Artur KamczyckiFrom Mentsh toMacho. Zionism, Gender and the Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Eugeny Kotlyar“If Iforget Thee, Jerusalem.” Eastern European synagogue decorations inthe Zionist paradigm . . 59

Tamara SztymaUnrealised projects. Plans for Jewish monuments before 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

II. Societies inartists’ eye

William GilcherThe artist and the patron: Izrael Lejzerowicz and the Margolin/Spektor family inpre-war Lodz 85

Dominika BuchowskaJewish themes inDavid Bomberg’s early works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Małgorzata StępnikThe artist, the explorer, the initiate. Spiritual journeys ofMaya Deren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

6 Table of contents

Gail LevinTheresa Berenstein (1890–2002): AKrakow-born Jewish artist inAmerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Teresa ŚmiechowskaMaster and apprentice. The photographic work of Alter Kacyzne and Menachem Kipnis – influences, similarities, differences, and a life cut short . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Irina Obuchowa-ZielińskaHenryk Stifelman, the Warsaw architect inthe context ofhis time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

III. Social encounters and search for the self

Małgorzata Stolarska-FroniaLudwig Meidner – ahyperbaroque expressionist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Monika Czekanowska-GutmanDialogue with Christian art: The Pietà inearly 20th-century Jewish art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Irena KossowskaInsearch for cultural identity: Bruno Schulz, Debora Vogel and Giorgio de Chirico . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Ziva Amishai-MaiselsChagall's Jewish identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Sergey R. KravtsovSynagogue architecture ofVolhynia: asearch for identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Haim FinkelsteinE. M. Lilien: Between Drohobych and Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Dina KhisamovaThe role ofKazan Art School inaformation ofacreative destiny ofthe sculptor Yankel Katz . . 197

Eleonora JedlińskaThe art oflife and the art: Eugenia (Gina) Pinkus-Szwarc and Marek Szwarc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

IV. When Jewish art meets history

Vita Susak“Laocoon: or the Limits” ofpogroms representation invisual arts (first third ofthe 20th century) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Batya BrutinLea Grundig: Duality between political and Jewish identity – 1933–1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Karina SimonsonHistorical memory inthe work ofSouth African Litvak photographers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

7Table of contents

Maya Balakirsky KatzCartooning citizen collaboration: A1949 Jewish war film inMoscow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

V. Documenting and revisiting Jewish tradition

Magdalena KunińskaIn search of the Jewish identity: Zofia Ameisenowa and research into Jewish iconography and its place in Polish art history discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Vilma GradinskaiteHistory ofart collection inVilnius Jewish Museums: from the time ofthe Russian Empire tothe present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Jana ŠvantnerováPrešov Jewish Museum. Communities and individual donors toits collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Anna Lebet-MinakowskaMinister dream or ‘cold’ calculation? History ofthe Judaica Department ofthe National Museum inKrakow inthe years 1935–1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Ariane HandrockRepresenting and constructing Jewish art: Alfred Grotte asan architect and author . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Barry Dov WalfishOtto Schneid and his Archive: Anew digital resource for the study ofmodern Jewish art . . . . . . 297

Reviews

Dominika BuchowskaJewish Art inLondon. Review ofthe exhibition: Out ofChaos, Ben Uri: 100 Years inLondon (2 July–3 December 2015), Somerset House, London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Regina WeinreichDegenerate Art: Exile toExtinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

e Polish Institute of World Art Studies devotes this volume to the memory of Professor Avigdor Poseq. Professor Poseq was born in 1934 in Krakow and passed away on November 15, 2016. He was an eminent art historian, associated with the Department of Art History at the Hebrew University in Jeru-salem. In his work, besides publications on the art of the Re-naissance and Baroque, his studies were devoted to the works of prominent Jewish artists from Central and Eastern Europe, including Chaim Soutine and Jacques Lipchitz. Prof. Poseq participated in and delivered the key note lecture during the First Congress of Jewish Art in Poland, which the Institute or-ganized in 2008 in Kazimierz Dolny. He was the last Polish professor of art history in Israel.

ART

IN JEWISH SOCIETY

Jerzy Malinowski

President of the Polish Institute of World Art Studies

Nicolaus Copernicus University

Introduction

Art inJewish society is avolume ofstudies from the Second Congress ofJewish Art inPoland that took place on 24–26 June 2014, organised inWarsaw by the Polish Institute ofWorld Art Studies incoop-eration with the Museum ofthe History ofPolish Jews POLIN.

The first Congress ofJewish Art entitled Jew-ish Artists and Central-Eastern Europe. Art cent-ers – identity – heritage from the 19th century tothe Second World War took place inKazimierz Dolny on 27–30 October 2008. The picturesque setting ofthe congress befitted the memory ofthe shtetl – Jewish towns inCentral and Eastern Europe – evoking images ofJewish artists from the local artis-tic community, literary works and films. The night screening ofthe film Dybbuk, directed by Michał (Michael) Waszyński, ina local synagogue made a lasting impression on the participants. The con-gress was held on the centenary ofthe famous Con-gress ofJewish writers inCzernowitz (now Cher-nivtsi) and revolved around the issues ofcreativity, artistic attitudes and the protection ofthe cultural heritage ofPolish Jews.

A large monographic volume was published in2010 asasummary ofthe First Congress. Inthis book, agroup ofspecialists from avariety ofglobal academic centres presented the results oftheir re-search devoted toextensive, often unexplored issues

ofarchitecture, paintings, ritual objects, photogra-phy and film. This created apanorama ofartistic and cultural events, taking place inJewish commu-nities from St. Petersburg and Kiev through Vilna, Lwow, Warsaw, Breslau and on to Berlin, Paris, London and New York, aswell asan overview ofin-tellectual, religious and political standpoints. Inthe end, itevoked the image ofaheritage preserved or known only from stories. This is the first compre-hensive, international and English-language publi-cation toappear inPoland and asaresult, the com-munity ofhistorians ofJewish art came together inthe international study ofJewish art.

The focus ofthe second volume is on the rela-tionship between art and the Jewish community. The ideas ofthe Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment), formed atthe turn ofthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries inBerlin, resulted inthe inclusion ofJews (after the abolition oflegal restrictions) within the political and cultural life ofEurope. Inthe process ofmodernisation, the Jewish community redefined its relationship toits own artistic tradition, includ-ing the prohibition ofthe presentation ofthe human form. The beginning ofmodern painting and sculp-ture Jewish is associated with the 1860s and 70s. The genesis ofthe first Jewish artistic community inWarsaw dates back toaround 1880. Inthe late 19th and early 20th century, communities ofJewish

10 Jerzy Malinowski

artists and theoreticians, critics, patrons and col-lectors of art appeared in many cities in Central and Eastern Europe, and artistic groups developed in Berlin, Munich, Vienna, and finally in Paris. Independent exhibitions ofJewish artists, starting with the event organised inBerlin in1907, integrat-ed the community. Before Jewish art appeared on the scene, new horizons had already opened, usually associated with political ideologies. The years from the beginning ofthe twentieth century toaround 1930 was the most important period interms ofthe achievements ofJewish artists who, while belong-ing tothe European community, sought their own cultural identity and so atthe same time created aseparate (‘national’) art along with independent art institutions (including the Kultur-lige inKiev and the Jewish Society for the Encouragement ofFine Arts inWarsaw).

Inthis volume, the authors searched for answers tothe questions raised atthe congress: ofartistic ideas, and so ofthe attitude totheir own traditions, about an artistic life associated with the creation ofaesthetic values, ofart collection and the acqui-sition ofnew traditions and values by the Jewish people.

This volume contains awide spectrum ofinter-pretations ofJewish art inthe social and cultural context. The authors ofthese studies presented the profiles ofartists and people ofart aswell asartistic trends against the social and cultural background prevalent in the Jewish communities of Central and Eastern Europe from the period ofemancipa-tion until the mid-twentieth century. These studies ofdiversified methods, methodologies and research perspectives included texts devoted tothe relation-ships ofthe output ofJewish artists with Zionist ideology, Christian threads inJewish art, the reac-tions ofJewish artists topolitical events, such asthe pogroms, World War I, or the persecution they ex-perienced after Hitler's rise topower. The last part ofthe volume is devoted toJewish museums and collections. The topics presented by the authors are extremely diverse yet atthe same time complement each other toform acohesive whole. The volume contains studies ofvarious aspects ofthe work ofin-dividual artists (Yankiel Katz and his relationship with the art school inKazan, Theresa Berenstein, Bruno Schulz, Samuel Hirszenberg and Marek Szwarc), aswell asmore comprehensive studies on Jewish architecture (the synagogues inVolhynia; the designs of Henryk Stifelman), photography

(a comparative study of the works of Menachem Kipnis and Alter Kacyzne, aswell asan article about the South African Litvak photographer) and film (the work ofMaya Deren; a1949 Jewish War Film inMoscow), aswell asarts and crafts (Jewish paper-cuts) and monuments (Jewish monuments before 1939). Studies on art education are also included (Jewish students atthe Warsaw Academy ofFine Arts). Three articles examine the topic ofthe re-lationship between Jewish artists and European avant-garde circles (David Bomberg, Marc Chagall, Ludwig Meidner). Compatible with the thematic framework designated by the editors of the vol-ume, there are articles on Christian-Jewish relations (Pieta inJewish art), or the involvement ofJewish artists inimportant historical events and politics (Jewish artists against the policies ofNational So-cialism, the presentation ofpogroms inart), includ-ing their involvement inZionist ideology (Ephraim Moses Lilien, iconographic motifs inthe interior ofEastern European synagogues). There are also some interesting articles discussing the activities of Jewish art critics and historians (Tea Arcisze-wska, Otto Schneider, Zofia Ameisenowa) and pa-trons (the Margolin family who supported the artist Israel Lejzerowicz), who played an important role as intermediaries between the artists and society. Asimilar social role inthe promotion ofculture was played by Jewish museums and private collec-tions, directly represented inthis volume by three articles (the Jewish Museum inPrešov, the history ofart collections inthe Jewish museum ofVilna (now Vilnius), the Judaica collections of the Na-tional Museum inKrakow).

Since the release ofthe first post-congress vol-ume in2010, the Jewish art research community in Poland has undergone considerable changes. The main research centre operating since 2007 is the Department ofJewish Art atthe Polish Insti-tute ofWorld Art Studies, established in2011 from the merger ofthe Society ofModern Art inTorun (est. 2000) and the Polish Society ofOriental Art inWarsaw (est. 2006).

In 2015, the Institute – in cooperation with the Museum ofthe History ofPolish Jews – began topublish amonumental series inentitled Jewish art inPoland and Central-East Europe, financed by the Ministry of Culture and National Herit-age and Ministry ofSciences and Higher Educa-tion. The first one will feature supplemented and revised versions ofthe work ofMaria and Kazimierz

11Introduction

Piechotka. The first – Heaven’s Gates. Wooden Syn-agogues inthe territories ofthe former Polish-Lith-uanian Commonwealth – was published in both languages in2015. The second – Heaven's Gates: masonry Synagogues inthe territories ofthe former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth will be released in 2016. The third – Oppidum Judeorum. Jews inthe Urban Space ofthe former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – will be published in2017.

The next phase inthe series would include out-standing, classical items published inPoland before 1939, which will recall the tradition ofthe art and culture ofPolish Jews such as, among others, Ma-jer Bałaban and Zofia Ameisenowa, supplemented with commentary and introductions, aswell assome contemporary pieces only published so far inPol-ish, which should now appear inEnglish. In the future, the most important goal ofthe series will be toshape the research conducted inPoland and other countries through the publication ofworks that have been written especially for the series.

Other series produced by the Institute in re-cent years have included publications on Jewish art: Studies and monographs - Jews and Judaism inthe mirror ofancient art by Magdalena Maciudzińska-Kamczycka (2014) and ‘Asense ofform’: the art ofDa-vid Bomberg by Dominika Buchowska (2015) inthe series Sources for art history – Choice (Le choix) by Eu-genia Markowa [Gina Pinkus-Szwarc], anovel pub-lished inParis in1961 translated by Jakub Jedliński and edited by Eleonora Jedlińska (2015), and finally Jewish artists inWarsaw 1939–1945 by Magdalena Tarnowska (2015) that was not part ofany series. Adam Kamczycki, who is associated with the In-stitute, published awork entitled Zionism and art. The iconography ofTheodor Herzl (2014). Numerous articles about art and Jewish artists have been pub-lished inthe Institute’s periodicals: Pamiętnik Sztuk Pięknych (Fine Arts Diary), Sztuka Europy Wschod-niej/Искусство Восточной Европы/Art of Eastern Europe aswell asinthe volumes ofthe series Studies on modern art (see www.world-art.pl).

I. Artistic ideas in Jewish Society

ART

IN JEWISH SOCIETY

Renata Piątkowska

Polin Museum ofthe History ofPolish Jews

Polish Institute ofWorld Art Studies

Ashared space. Jewish students atthe Warsaw Academy ofFine Arts (1923–1939)

The concept of frontier, introduced into Jewish studies by Sander L. Gilman is also useful for re-search into the milieu and output ofJewish artists inPoland, similarly tothe concept of“third space” used by Marcus Silber, inwhich “members ofthe ethnonational minority group have adopted cul-tural elements ofboth the majority and minority groups, and are active inboth spaces.”1 According toGilman, the Jewish frontier is “the conceptual and physical space where groups inmotion meet, confront, alter, destroy, and build. It is the place ofthe “migrant culture ofthe in-between.”2

During the inter-war period, one of the main contact zones between minorities and the domi-nant Polish majority were schools3 and universi-ties. Universal and compulsory primary educa-tion resulted inthe fact that the young generation of Jews also grew up within the realities of the

1 Silber (2010: 64).2 Gilman (2003: 15). An important inspiration for my arti-

cle was also the research conducted by Eugenia Prokop-Janiec on the institutions and places ofthe Polish-Jewish frontier, see Prokop-Janiec (2013) and Kamil Kijek on the consciousness and socialisation ofJewish youth within the Second Polish Republic – Kijek (2010: 85–112); Kijek (2013). Unpublished doctoral thesis. Iwould like tothank the author for making itavailable tome.

3 Prokop-Janiec (2013: 47–75).

Polish socio-cultural space.4 Although this mass acculturation and Polonisation did not lead tothe disappearance ofthe Jewish national consciousness, itdid however influence the consciousness of this young generation and was also an important, mod-ernising element inits self-development.5

Art schools were one of the most significant ‘frontier’ places, inwhich students ofvarious eth-nicities, social classes and faiths mingled. For many young Jews, inparticular those from Central and Eastern Europe, they were often the first place where they stepped into the world of European and Christian culture. Aplace where friendships, conflicts and antagonisms were born.

Since the 19th century, more and more young Jewish boys (and from the beginning of the 20th century, Jewish girls aswell) took up art studies, and the only institution ofhigher education ofthis type on Polish soil atthe time – the Academy ofFine Arts inKrakow – was one ofthe places where Jew-ish students discovered and often appropriated the Polish symbolic universe (asdid Maurycy Gottlieb in his famous Self-Portrait in Polish Nobleman's

4 AsKijek demonstrates, this took place irrespective ofthe type ofschool, since Polish literature, both history ofPoland and general history and geography were taught in Polish inJewish schools aswell, see Kijek (2010: 89–90).

5 Kijek (2013: 249).

16 Renata Piątkowska

Dress). But the Academy in Krakow was also aplace ofdispute, rivalry and exclusion.6 During the inter-war period, two art academies were active – inKrakow and Warsaw. InVilna, however, the Faculty ofFine Arts was part ofthe Stefan Batory University.

The School of Fine Arts, opened in 1904 in Warsaw, was a modern institution, unencum-bered by traditional hierarchies both interms ofits programme and its accessibility for all those who wished toattend. The success ofthe school was de-pendent upon the personalities ofits professors, em-inent artists such as: Kazimierz Stabrowski, Kon-rad Krzyżanowski, Ferdynand Ruszczyc, Ksawery Dunikowski, Wojciech Jastrzębowski, Władysław Skoczylas, Tadeusz Pruszkowski or Tadeusz Brey-er. Many Jews studied there, including those from poor, traditionalist backgrounds such asMojżesz Rynecki or Ber Kratka.7

The Warsaw academy appears tohave been an exceptional place, both on the basis ofinformation contained in the documents that have been pre-served and the recollections of its students, where open conflicts ofapolitical or ethnic nature never occurred. Władysław Skoczylas, one of its profes-sors, claimed that “inour nation, art should play an important role in nation building. (...) In the domain of the civic responsibilisation of ethnic minorities, more can be achieved through art than through administrative coercion.”8

Also inthe 1930s, when the political and eco-nomic situation ofthe Jews – citizens ofthe Sec-ond Republic – worsened, when anti-Semitism ensconced itself inother institutions (not exclud-ing the Academy in Krakow), when the normal experience of Jewish students was not only the “bench Ghetto” but also physical violence, War-saw's Academy remained “friendly and guaranteed security.”9 Students and professors jointly opposed attempts tointroduce the numerus clausus or the “bench Ghetto.”10 A question therefore arises: is writing about the Jewish students ofthis institu-tion asaseparate group atall justified? Ibelieve itis worth looking atthis group ofyoung people, who saw no danger (through ‘assimilation’) in Polish

6 Styrna (2005: 133–144).7 About the history ofWarsaw Academy ofFine Arts see

Piwocki (2004) and Sztuka wszędzie (2012).8 Skoczylas (1984: 41).9 Sztuka wszędzie (2012: 61).10 Sztuka wszędzie (2012: 61).

educational institutions, but instead saw them as a possibility for self-development11, including on the level ofnational aspirations. Through the experiences gained atthe Warsaw institution that, through the voices and activities of its professors, introduced the concept ofthe ‘artist-artisan’ serv-ing the national cause, these young Jewish creators, entering into their artistic maturity inthe 1930s, were prepared tointroduce and implement amod-ern form ofJewish culture inPoland.

Iwould like toconcentrate on depicting Jew-ish students within basic social contexts: family, friends, local circles, i.e. the primary environment. Aswell asshowing the ‘secondary’ contexts – i.e. schools, and more widely, the subsequent educa-tional levels within the social life of the Second Republic. This frontier between that which is per-sonal, which applies toan individual’s cultural and national identity, and that which is common, which is the surrounding world ofthe dominant Polish reality, allows us toshow the multifaceted aspects ofthe acculturation ofJewish youth within an inde-pendent Poland, their aspirations, hopes and disap-pointments, through the example ofyoung artists.

The copious, though incomplete, archives ofthe Warsaw Art Academy for the years 1923–1939 have been preserved.12 Only those students who indicated Judaism astheir religion on their admission applica-tions are taken into account.13 Additional declara-tions concerning their ethnicity and native language show how differentiated the spectrum oftheir own identities was. Thanks to the admission forms, letters and official documents preserved in their student files, we also obtain copious information concerning the milieu they were from (they state their parents' occupations) and education (including previous artistic education). One finds many per-sonal thoughts inthese official documents, thanks towhich we can discover their aspirations, plans and hopes for the future, but also encounter their difficult, impoverished everyday existence.14

11 Kijek (2013: 249).12 These are, among others, the Minutes of the Main

Council Meetings (Księgi Protokołów Obrad Rady Głów-nej), etc, Academy ofFine Arts archives, Warsaw, (Archiwum Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie).

13 This was acompulsory section. For instance, Alek-sander Żyw defined himself asan atheist. But since this category did not exist, he wrote down Judaism, Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1813.

14 The short “What interests me inart?” essays, written in1938 by aspiring candidates are interesting for instance.

17A shared space. Jewish students at the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts (1923–1939)

Up to1939, around 120 Jewish students (both men and women) passed through the institution. They constituted around 10% ofall students.15 Most ofthem studied during the 1923–1939 period, after the school was reopened, this time asastate insti-tution. They differed inwealth, education and also intheir sense ofethnic consciousness and personal identity. Ihave chosen more than adozen figures, whose paths, studies and later careers exemplify this diversity.

The most Polonised group consisted ofgirls. Ever since the second half ofthe 19th century, modernisa-tion and its associated changes within Jewish soci-ety had caused the traditional education ofwomen tochange significantly. More and more girls were educated instate and private schools. This broad-ened the horizons and interests ofyoung women, and opened them tothe non-Jewish world.16 The girls starting their studies atthe Academy (irrespec-tive ofethnicity and religion) were most often bet-ter educated than the boys (most had their second-ary school diploma or had at least finished several years). They were mostly from the middle class; their fathers were lawyers, doctors, industrialists and they paid their tuition fees. Most girls received not only financial help from their families, but above all encouragement for further development and support for their artistic aspirations. On the forms they filled in, most declared Polish asboth native language and ethnicity. Even when, for in-stance, Hanna Rosenman, daughter of the chief rabbi ofBiałystok, Gedalia Rosenman, declared her ethnicity asJewish, she declared her native language asPolish.17

In the 1920s, three women studied painting atthe Warsaw Academy – Elżbieta Hirszberżanka [Hirszberg] (1899-after 1961), Gizela Hufnagel (1903–1997) and Mery Litauer (1900–1992), who in1929 formed the only female art collective ofthe 1920s, Kolor (Colour). They were students

Essays written by two Jewish men attempting toenroll have been preserved: Moszek Grynfas from Grójec (who again failed tobe admitted) and Chaim Tyber from Kutno, who did not commence his studies for financial reasons, Arts Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files, 264, 1581.

15 Kozielska (2008: 52); pre-war data: Almanach (1938: 97).16 Stampfer (1992: 96–97). See also: Hyman (1995), Pa-

rush (2004).17 Arts Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1232.

Similar declarations were submitted by Resia Ajnsztajn (Schor), Zofia Gleichgewicht (Zawadzka), Frejda Golfeder, Dwojra Sowa, Pessa Zajtman, among others.

ofTadeusz Pruszkowski, an eminent painter and the most popular teacher atthe school, who “knew how toawaken self-belief like no other professor at the time.”18 Students, both male and female, signed up indroves tostudy inhis atelier.

The members ofthe Kolor group were united by their Jewish origins, though itwould seem that this fact only had apersonal significance for them. Hirszberżanka [Hirszberg] and Hufnagel were born inWarsaw, inPolonised and assimilated fami-lies, while Mery Litauer was from Vilna, where she finished the seven-class secondary school in1916.19 They were, therefore, all from families that were wealthy enough topay for their education and open enough toallow young girls (atthe time they started their studies, Litauer was 19 and Hirszberżanka 17) tostudy art, which inthe case ofLitauer, also corre-sponded toleaving for faraway Warsaw. Their links toPolish culture and their patriotism are evidenced intheir student files by attestations oftheir work aspart ofthe “Koło Opieki nad żołnierzem polskim przy Komitecie Obrony Państwa” (‘Association for the care ofPolish soldiers attached tothe National Defence Committee’) (Litauer) and “Koło Polek miasta Warszawy” (‘Warsaw association ofPolish women’) and “Koło Inteligencji” (‘Intelligentsia As-sociation’) on Wspólna 39 (Hufnagel, who was at-tending the 8th class ofsecondary school atthe time) during the Polish-Soviet war in1920.20 From their listed addresses, we can see they lived far from the Jewish neighbourhood. They did not present their work through Żydowskie Towarzystwo Zachęty Sz-tuk Pięknych (Jewish Society for the Encourage-ment ofthe Fine Arts). Two ofthem married Chris-tian friends from university: Mery Litauer – Roman Schneider and Gizela Hufnagel – Eugeniusz Arct.

The road to art studies for young men was more winding and more difficult. Many ofthem came from small towns, from poor, traditionalist milieux (e.g. Natan (Nusen) Gutman from Rypin, Chaim Goldberg from Kazimierz on the Vis-tula river,21 Izaak Krzeczanowski from Dobrzyń

18 Lorentowicz (1971: 48).19 Inher admission application from 3 October 1923, Lit-

auer stated that her ”certificate and licence for finishing the secondary school were taken toPołtawa inRussia” and pre-sented her attestation for being accepted into the 7th second-ary school class, Arts Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 743.

20 Arts Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 332.21 “Ispent my childhood with my parents and the difficult

financial situation forced me tobecome an earner. Education

18 Renata Piątkowska

(now: Golub-Dobrzyń). Not many ofthem had fin-ished their education with ahigh-school certificate (e.g. Samuel Lieberwert), some had afew secondary school classes behind them (e.g. Hirsz Chejchman, Leon Chejfec). Others, like Natan Gutman, had only received “home schooling,” that is he attended acheder. Their artistic aspirations rarely found fa-vour among their families. “Against the will ofmy parents, Imade my way toWarsaw, inorder tore-ceive an artistic education” – wrote Gutman.22 Simi-larly, Mojżesz Psachis stated: “so my parents tried toforce me tostudy and forbade me todraw.”23

Despite the interdictions, they found the strength and determination within themselves todevelop their talent. This was hardly easy, espe-cially when the onus ofupkeep fell upon the stu-dent. The studies demanded time, added towhich students, including guest students, paid tuition fees and bought their own canvasses, brushes and paints. In the student files, we find numerous requests to be exempted from tuition fees and to receive grants: both from the state and from the Samuel Hirszenberg fund for Jewish students set up in1928 by Diana Eiger.24

The school attempted to help students. It ex-empted them from fees, fully or partially. Some-times, asinthe case ofJehuda Wermus, for nearly the entire duration of their studies.25 According tothe financial capacity ofthe institution, which was plagued by constant difficulties, monetary prizes for distinguished achievements were awarded atthe end ofeach semester.

was out ofthe question, Iworked asahouse painter. In1931, Imet astudent named Saul Zylbersztajn (Silberstein), who took care ofme until 1932. Through him, Imet professor Kuna and Kronstein the lawyer, who on account ofmy pov-erty help me with 40[?] zl amonth. Thanks tothem Ican live and study. 9 Sept 1934.” Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 264.

22 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 272.23 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1150.24 The first toreceive the Hirszenberg scholarship (5 March

1929) was Menasze Seidenbeutel during the 1928/1929 aca-demic year. Among those who applied for the Samuel Hirszen-berg scholarship were: Izaak Ciechanowiecki, Chaim Cytryn (refused), Chaim Funtowicz, Abraham Frydman (received), Mojżesz Gurewicz (refused), Samuel Lieberwerth (received), Dawid Pfeffer, Ilya Schor (received), Fiszel Zylberberg. Natan Rapoport applied three times, tofinally receive the scholar-ship, intended for artistic voyages abroad. The scholarship was attributed outside ofthe School and minutes etc. are not preserved.

25 Academy ofFine Arts archives, Minutes ofthe Main Council Meetings.

Another difficulty tosolve problem was find-ing cheap and suitable lodgings, which amounted to a miracle in Warsaw at the time. Some could count on affordable places inthe Żydowski Dom Akademicki (Jewish Student Halls ofResidence) in the Praga district, which offered comfortable rooms, served cheap meals inits cafeteria and also housed ateliers for painters.26

The lower educational level ofthe boys resulted in, quite evidently, alesser experience ofthe world, lesser knowledge ofculture and art, and sometimes problems with the Polish language itself which (though itshould be noted that, while not always adhering strictly to grammar and spelling, was nevertheless rich and fluent). However, everyone wanted tolearn. Their dreams and aspirations were summed up by Leon Chejfec: “Currently, my sole goal is toenter the School ofFine Arts, so astono longer be separated from art.”27

Let us atake acloser look atsome ofartists in-volved inthe Warsaw Art Academy – each repre-senting adifferent path inhis artistic approach and development.

Jehuda Wermus (1908–1943) is the least known ofthis group. He was born in1908 inWarsaw, into awealthy and religious family. On his admission application, he wrote in impeccable Polish: “My education consists of6 finished secondary school classes inthe humanities, (...) Iam self-taught (...).“ Until 1923, I attended the Jewish Takchemoni seminary.”28 This private school was something be-tween ayeshivah and amodern secondary school. During the 1920s, its director was the historian Majer Bałaban. Apart from religious study (Judaic and Talmudic), its pupils received asecular educa-tion corresponding tothe level ofstate secondary schools specialising inthe humanities. Wermus did not graduate from the school29 since, asa16-year-old full ofZionist zeal, he departed for Palestine. He spent several years inakibbutz there and stud-ied drawing under “Prof. Herman Sztruk”30 (Her-mann Struck). He returned toPoland in1927 and

26 Żebrowski (2014: 188–215).27 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 61.28 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1649.29 Itis worth noting that the Wermus finally resolved his

lack offormal education by passing his high-school certificate exam with a satisfactory result, which allowed him to en-roll asanormal student atthe School ofFine Arts, see letter from 18 March 1929. Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1649.

30 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1649.

19A shared space. Jewish students at the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts (1923–1939)

inJanuary ofthe following year, started his studies atthe School ofFine Arts. This was disapproved by his parents who, ashe himself wrote “are not inaposition tohelp me financially and refuse todo so, as a consequence of which I have no means tosupport myself.”31 Luckily, “his talent and hard work”32 allowed him tobe exempted from tuition fees. He was astudent ofWładysław Skoczylas and prepared his diploma work under his care – ase-ries ofillustrations for I. L. Peretz’s Di Goldene keyt (The Golden Chain)33 (ill.1). For later generations, Peretz remained the Jewish national writer, asym-bol ofthe struggle for Jewish culture. The young artist donated the series to the Museum of Fine Arts at the Yiddish Scientific Institute (YIVO) inVilna.34

Apart from their artistic merit and Wermus' debt toSkoczylas' own style, what is equally interesting is their proximity to the concept of national art promulgated by Skoczylas, whose nature, according tohim, was a“certain defined world ofemotions” and its goal “maintaining the identity ofthe nation and its persistence.”35 The young artist took asim-ilar path, wishing togive Jewish national culture amodern form. Before his departure for the USSR in1934, where he died inaGulag afew years later, Wermus had the time topresent his work at the Jewish Society for the Encouragement ofthe Fine Arts (10 Dec 1933 – 31 Dec 1933) aspart ofthe so-called Grupa Młodych (Young Group), students and graduates ofthe Academy: Fiszel Zylberberg, Jehuda Wermus, Ilya Schor and Natan Rapoport36 (ill.2).

Over time, ittranspired that all four previously mentioned artists had confirmed and developed their talent. The most prominent figure among them was Natan Rapoport (1911–1987) – the crea-tor ofthe Monument tothe Ghetto Heroes inWar-saw. He came from amoderately wealthy Warsaw

31 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1649.32 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1649. 33 Some of these drawings are known tous from repro-

ductions which appeared inNasz Przegląd Ilustrowany 46 (1933): 6 and inLiterarishe Bleter – Peretz’s (1932: 623).

34 Peretz’s (1932: 623).35 Sztuka wszędzie (2012: 48–49).36 10 Dec – 31 Dec 1933 Young artists' exhibition (Zylb-

erberg – painting, Wermus – engraving, Schor – miniature, Rapoport – sculpture) aswell as Jewish ex libris from the Kazimierz Rejchman collection and aseries ofdrawings [?] by [Reuven] Rubin (Palestine) from the Jewish Society for the Encouragement ofthe Fine Arts (ŻTKSP) collection, ŻTKSP gallery, Wierzbowa 7. For the exhibition, see Frydman (1933: 847); Strakun (1933: 6); Grupa (1934: 17); Weinzieher 1934.

family, lived on Bonifraterska, inthe heart ofWar-saw's New Town and completed seven elementary school classes (though ashe stated, he was home schooled during classes 5–7). Ashe himself wrote: “Since early childhood, Ihad an affection for draw-ing and dreamt ofthe possibility ofbeing educated inthis domain.”37 For three years, he attended the Miejska Szkoła Sztuk Zdobniczych i Malarstwa (Municipal School ofDecorative Arts and Painting) while simultaneously working inthe Aleksander Veith sculpture and stucco atelier and the Stanisław Jakubowski sculpture atelier inWilanów Palace.

Rapoport was one offour Jewish students who, apart from their Jewish ethnicity, declared Hebrew astheir native language (ills.3, 4), (the others were: Lutka Pinkusewicz (1928), Mojżesz Psachis (1930) and Beniamin Rozenbaum38 (1931). The choice of Hebrew was a political statement on the part of supporters of Zionism. Rapoport was a mem-ber of Hashomer Hatzair, and at an exhibition

37 Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1181.38 In the picture included with his school certificates,

Rozenbaum is wearing aHashomer Hatzair badge, Academy ofFine Arts archives, student files 1231.

Ill. 1. Jehuda Wermus, Illustrations for I. L. Peretz’s Di Goldene keyt (The Golden Chain), Literarishe Bleter, 39 (1932): 623

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Ill. 2. Students od the Warsaw Academy ofFine Arts, among others Fiszel Zylberberg (Zber) is inthe front middle, Ilya Schor top right, courtesy ofMira Schor, from the archive ofIlya Schor and Resia Schor

Ill. 3. Application form of Natan Rapoport for the School of Fine Arts, 1930, Academy of Fine Arts archives, student files 1181

Ill. 4. Application form of Natan Rapoport for the School of Fine Arts, 1930, Academy of Fine Arts archives, student files 1181